Social Acceptance of Renewable Energy Sources a Review of Contingent Valuation Applications

Introduction

In March 2011, the Fukushima nuclear power establish was struck past a huge tsunami caused by a ix.0-magnitude earthquake approximately 180 km east of Japan'south Tohoku region. This seriously damaged the plant, resulting in three meltdowns. The nuclear accident had serious negative effects on the regional and global environment; moreover, the accident also led to a fundamental epitome shift in nigh nations in regard to their free energy policies (Wittneben, 2012).

The Fukushima nuclear blow likewise affected public perspectives toward nuclear-free energy technologies and facilities; all the same, several studies have shown that there are notable differences in such public perceptions across unlike nations (Visschers and Siegrist, 2013; Bird et al., 2014; Richter et al., 2015). Furthermore, compared to the breadth of prior research on public perceptions of nuclear-free energy technologies and facilities, few studies accept focused on public perceptions of technologies and facilities relating to alternative energy (Cherp and Jewell, 2016; Komiyama and Fujii, 2017).

Public perception of alternative-energy sources is considered 1 of the most of import factors influencing the investment allocated to related energy facilities and technologies within national energy plans. Moreover, these perceptions are also affected by events and accidents in other countries (Gamson and Modigliani, 1989; Verplanken, 1989). Later the Fukushima blow caused significant public resistance toward nuclear free energy, the bulk of both developed and developing countries that were considering using nuclear energy every bit their master energy and electricity supply resource have completely reviewed and revised their national energy plans (Dhakal, 2009; Chen et al., 2014). For instance, the German authorities has changed its national energy policies to exclude nuclear energy from its future energy plans and the Japanese government has revised its national energy plan to exclude nuclear energy as a main free energy resource (Betzer et al., 2013; Hong et al., 2013).

The Fukushima nuclear accident allowed the public in almost countries to acquire of the serious negative effects of nuclear free energy technologies and facilities on global environments and citizens' wellness (Shimura et al., 2015). Consequently, this created a public desire for the implementation of culling energy resource in order to reduce the usage of nuclear energy. Amongst the diverse energy resource that are currently nether consideration to replace nuclear energy, renewable-free energy resources are considered to be one of the most promising (Mbarek et al., 2015).

As renewable-energy resources may play an important function in revised hereafter energy plans, several studies have explored public perceptions of renewable energy. For example, Blindside et al. (2000) found that consumer concerns toward renewable energy were notable determinants of consumer attitude toward willingness to adopt renewable energy. Painuly (2001) also indicated that there are various barriers to employing renewable energy in developing countries. In addition, the inquiry of Mallett (2007), and Wüstenhagen and Boehnke (2008) have shown that the public's economic, socio-demographic, and psychological factors tin can form significant determinants of the public'southward desire to adopt renewable-energy technologies. However, few studies have focused on the transitions of public attitudes toward renewable-energy technologies (Park and Ohm, 2014).

In Republic of korea, Park and Ohm (2014) examined public perceptions of renewable energy technologies, proposed an adoption model for renewable energy technologies, and conducted pen-and-paper surveys both before and later the Fukushima nuclear blow. Earlier the accident, price was one of the chief reasons behind the inhibited usage of renewable-energy technologies; nevertheless, later on the accident, public attitudes toward the technologies and their perceived low-degree of risk became notable determinants toward desire to adopt the technologies (Park and Ohm, 2014).

Consequently, the electric current study attempts to explore the post-obit points:

i. Has there been any alter in public perceptions of renewable-energy technologies since the Fukushima nuclear blow?

2. What has motivated the public to prefer renewable-energy technologies in Southward Korea?

In order to address the first research question, the current study reviews the findings and results of Park and Ohm (2014), conducts a pen-and-newspaper survey in South korea, and tracks the notable changes in public perspectives toward renewable-energy technologies. As mentioned by Park and Ohm (2014), because there is a substitutional relationship betwixt renewable and nuclear energy it would be worthwhile to present the effects the Fukushima nuclear blow had on public perceptions toward renewable-free energy technologies and examine significant changes in the public perceptions in Due south Korea in this regard.

Considering the 2nd signal, the current study uses the acceptance model for renewable-energy technologies tested by Park and Ohm (2014). Based on the results of the structural-equation modeling method, we can determine the motivations behind the public adoption of the technologies, and then compare the results of the current study with those of prior studies.

The remainder of this study is organized as follows: later on presenting the findings of prior studies that take focused on the adoption of renewable energy, the written report methodology is examined. The results and key findings are then presented. Finally, the limitations and future studies are examined.

Literature Review and Hypotheses

Social Acceptance of Renewable Energy

In society to respond both global warming and environmental pollutions, several nations significantly focus on both facilities and policies of culling energy resources (Gielen et al., 2019). It ways that utilizing alternative free energy resource and employing a mixed energy plans are one of the important tasks in establishing the national free energy policies (Dagoumas and Koltsaklis, 2019). Moreover, there take been notable efforts in using renewable energy resources for both national and local energy plans (Immature and Brans, 2020).

Still, there are significant economic, social, and industrial encumbrances related to utilizing renewable energy resources in the plans (Cajot et al., 2017). Amid them, social perceptions of specific energy resources and technologies are considered as one of the primary issues in the regional and national levels (Paravantis et al., 2018). With no conscientious comprehensive procedures on specific free energy-related facilities, a number of local or national conflicts tin can be presented (Kwon, 2018). Considering of this reason, a number of researchers and public officials have investigated how to explore social perceptions of specific energy resources, including renewable free energy resources (Kim et al., 2020).

Ribeiro et al. (2014) conducted a survey of public opinions on four renewable energy technologies, solar, hydro, biomass, and wind power. Considering 3,646 respondents, they found that there are a positive public perspective toward renewable energy resources, whereas NIMBY syndrome is significantly presented in the areas with biomass facilities. Moreover, they indicated that utilizing solar free energy resources and employing hydropower are the advisable desirable solutions for the economic and environmental contributions, and welfare aspects, respectively.

Liu et al. (2013) attempted to address social diffusion of renewable free energy technologies in one of the rural areas in Communist china through a field survey. Based on an analytical framework developed past the theory of planned behavior, they found that rural residents tend to have supportive perspectives toward renewable energy deployment with consideration of its positive relationships with environment. The results of 212 validated responses also reported that there are notable social and economical factors in determining rural residents' willing to pay for dark-green electricity.

Bertsch et al. (2016) addressed public acceptance of renewable energy and its-related policy. Conducting a survey in Germany, both the national and local levels' determinants of adopting renewable energy sources were examined. The results of a multivariate assay of covariance showed that there were significant differences betwixt local and national acceptance levels, while socio-demographic information (due east.thou., historic period and education) was crucially related to the acceptance levels.

Although there are a number of prior studies on social acceptance of renewable energy resources (Kim et al., 2020), at that place are certain obstacles to track constant changes of social perceptions and acceptance of the resources. Because time-suitable grasping social opinions is i of the important issues (Kardooni et al., 2018), presenting both potentiality and significance of consistent tracking social opinions should be presented for governmental officers and stakeholders.

Reviews on the Credence of Renewable Energy Facilities in Korea

Notable quantitative studies take explored public perceptions of specific free energy technologies and facilities from social-science perspectives. For instance, McGowan and Sauter (2005) showed that, in regard to national energy plans, UK citizens preferred investment in renewable-energy facilities over nuclear-energy facilities.

Moreover, although several significant studies have investigated public attitudes and the adoption of renewable-energy technologies in regional and national perspectives, a limited number of studies take explored public attitudes and energy preferences before and later nuclear accidents, which may take notable effects on the attitudes toward and adoption of particular energy technologies every bit well equally alternative technologies (Eiser et al., 1989). One of the most notable transitions in public attitudes and adoption occurred in the 1970s when the global oil crisis caused citizens to get concerned virtually their national free energy plans, policies, and economy. Returning to the present, in South korea, Park and Ohm (2014) proposed an integrated research model for adopting renewable-energy technologies, and captured the significant transitions in public attitudes betwixt the periods before and after the Fukushima accident. Because seven factors, the main determinants of public desire to prefer renewable-energy technologies changed from cost to attitude.

For investigating the transitions, surveying citizens' opinions is considered i of the most accurate and successful research approaches. Consequently, the current study employs the conceptual research model previously validated by Park and Ohm (2014), and captures the notable changes in public perceptions of renewable-energy technologies over fourth dimension. In the research model of Park and Ohm (2014), the post-obit hypotheses are considered (Figure i):

H1. A higher degree of attitude leads to a higher degree of want to adopt.

H2. A college degree of perceived trust leads to a college degree of perceived benefits.

H3. A higher caste of perceived trust leads to a lower degree of perceived risks.

H4. A higher degree of knowledge leads to a college degree of perceived benefits.

H5. A college degree of knowledge leads to a lower degree of perceived risks.

H6. A higher degree of perceived benefits leads to a higher degree of public attitude.

H7. A college caste of perceived risks leads to a lower degree of public attitude.

H8. A higher degree of perceived cost leads to a lower caste of desire to adopt.

Figure 1. The proposed inquiry model used in this study.

Study Method

Survey Design and Procedure

Following the procedures of the survey-blueprint methodology used past Park and Ohm (2014), the current written report employed identical questionnaire items to those used in the main survey of Park and Ohm (2014).

We followed all procedures presented past Park and Ohm (2014): (1) exploring unique characteristics, (2) presenting selected constructs, (3) examining the potentiality and validity of the constructs, (4) conducting a pilot test with validity tests, and (five) presenting the survey.

In improver to two-time survey sessions in 2010 and 2012, which were conducted in prior studies (Park and Ohm, 2014), we conducted additional survey in 2016. All questionnaire items, sampling procedures and outliner filtering methodologies (a stratified quota sampling) were identical with prior survey sessions in 2010 and 2012. The survey was distributed to ane,500 potential respondents in 6 regions and 18 cities in South korea. In order to ensure the representativeness of the sample in the survey, the current report applied a stratified quota-sampling method. After excluding incomplete and invalidated responses, 991 (66.1% of response charge per unit) samples were used in the statistical analysis.

Measurements

All measurements in this study were validated by prior studies (Park and Ohm, 2014). All participants were instructed to marking each detail with a 7-point Likert scale (7: strongly agree/1: strongly disagree). The perceived trust was examined by three items (Cronbach'south blastoff: 0.890; due east.yard., "I believe that renewable energy technologies tin can improve our energy generation industry successfully."). Three items contributed to the perceived benefits (Cronbach's alpha: 0.912; e.one thousand., "Renewable energy technologies may help us develop increased industrial competitive advantages."). Moreover, the perceived toll was presented by three items (Cronbach'due south alpha: 0.888; e.g., "I think the maintenance cost of using renewable energy technologies and generators is expensive"), while three items composed the perceived risks (Cronbach's blastoff: 0.921; eastward.g., "Renewable energy technologies and plants can harm our society including animals and plants."). Three items were employed to examine the desire to prefer (Cronbach's blastoff: 0.909; e.k., "If I could, I would adopt to apply renewable free energy technologies and generators."). The public attitude was presented past 3 items (Cronbach's blastoff: 0.879; e.g., "Applying renewable energy technologies is extremely skillful for us"). Lastly, the public knowledge was organized by three items (Cronbach's alpha: 0.904; due east.g., "how familiar are yous with renewable energy sources and technologies?").

Data Assay

A structural-equation modeling (SEM) method was used to capture the structural changes in the inquiry model. In addition, by calculating the total furnishings of the factors relating to approving and comparison the results of the computations and SEM (2010, 2012, and 2016), the current written report aims to track significant changes in the structural relationships within the inquiry model.

Results

Analysis Methods

The connections in the research model were examined and analyzed using SEM. In guild to test the reliability of the employed constructs, we employed confirmatory-cistron analysis. The electric current study meets the recommendations of previous SEM studies in regard to internal (all Cronbach'due south alphas were higher than 0.7), convergent (all gene loadings, composite reliability, and boilerplate variance extracted values were college than 0.7, 0.7, and 0.5, respectively), and discriminant reliability tests (The correlation values between two specific constructs were lower than the square rots of the average variance extracted).

Fit Indices

The current study computed the fit indices of the measurement and enquiry models by because if the collected data were well-represented by the measurement and research models. The fit indices of the measurement and inquiry models were institute to be adequate (Table 1).

Table 1. The fit indices of the measurement and enquiry models (M: The measurement model, R: The research model; Anderson and Gerbing, 1988; Bagozzi and Yi, 1988; Jöreskog and Sörbom, 1996; Kenny and McCoach, 2003; Hoe, 2008).

Hypothesis Testing

Structural Results of the Research Model

The structural results of the research model are summarized in Table 2, and a comparing is presented in Figure 2. The results of the data that was collected in 2016 supported six hypotheses, while 2 hypotheses concerning knowledge-benefits and knowledge-risks were not significant (H4, β = −0.103, CR = −four.789, p > 0.05; H5, β = −0.078, CR = −two.822, p > 0.five). Public desire to prefer renewable technologies was significantly determined by two factors, public mental attitude and perceived cost, while the effects of public attitude on the desire to adopt (H1, β = 0.821, CR = 81.712, p < 0.001) were greater than those of perceived price (H8, β = −0.409, CR = −45.766, p < 0.001). Perceived benefits had positive effects on the attitude (H6, β = 0.518, CR = 72.988, p < 0.001), while the attitude was negatively affected by perceived risks (H7, β = −0.694, CR = −79.218, p < 0.001).

Table 2. Summary of the structural results from 2016 (*p < 0.001).

Figure 2. Summary of the results from 2010, 2012, and 2016 (A > Mental attitude; D > Public desire to prefer; T > Perceived trust; B > Perceived benefits; R > Perceived risks; K > Public noesis; C > Perceived cost).

Sum of Total Absolute Furnishings on the Intention

In order to present the key motivations behind users' attitudes toward renewable-free energy technologies, the total standardized effects of motivations and barriers in regard to this attitude were computed. Tabular array 3 and Figure 3 present a summary of the full effects on want to prefer. Although the effect perceived cost had on want to adopt significantly diminished betwixt 2010 and 2012 (0.776 → 0.345), it became moderately influential in 2016 (0.409). Compared to the role of cost, public attitude consistently remained a principal determinant of want to adopt (0.821 in 2016). The furnishings of perceived risks of adoption are becoming more than of import (0.124 in 2010 → 0.507 in 2012 → 0.570 in 2016), while the effects of perceived benefits of adoption are abating (0.248 → 0.664 → 0.425). Although public knowledge of renewable-energy technologies has been increasing, the effects of public knowledge are however lower than those of perceived trust (0.088 and 0.297).

Tabular array 3. Total standardized effects on the desire to prefer.

Figure 3. Summary of the effects on desire to adopt.

Sum of Total Accented Effects on the Attitude

The transitions of the furnishings of perceived trust, public knowledge, public benefits, and perceived risks on public desire to prefer renewable-energy technologies were quite like to those apropos attitude. In improver, public attitude played a notable part in affecting desire to adopt, while the furnishings of perceived toll on desire to adopt have increased. Similar to the effects of the constructs on adoption, the roles of public knowledge, perceived trust, and risks in regard to determining public attitude take also been growing in importance (Table iv and Figure 4). However, the effects of perceived benefits on attitude accept reduced (0.775 → 0.518).

Table 4. Full standardized effects on attitude.

Effigy iv. Summary of the furnishings on attitude.

Conclusion

This study aims to rail users' perceptions of renewable-energy technologies in the "mail-Fukushima era." Based on the findings of a previously conducted study on the Southward Korean public's perception of such technologies, this report re-examines the research model used in this previous written report and investigates the effects of the employed antecedents on public attitude toward and desire to adopt renewable-energy technologies. This report aimed to track the effects the Fukushima nuclear accident had on public perspectives toward renewable-energy technologies in S Korea. Every bit previous studies, both earlier and after the incident, accept fragmentarily observed public perceptions on such technologies, this study conducted a survey in 2016, 5 years subsequently the accident. Then, we compared the results of the data collected by the survey and the results of previous studies. Two factors, the perceived risks and benefits, significantly affected the attitude, while the risks and benefits were mainly determined by perceived trust in the technologies. Although ii factors, the risks and benefits, which were confirmed in prior enquiry as determinants of public desire to adopt such technologies, are as well presented in this report equally the antecedents of the desire to adopt, there are notable transitions in the post-Fukushima era (Park and Ohm, 2014).

Since the Fukushima nuclear accident, the S Korea public has tended to prefer more risk-oriented perspectives toward particular energy technologies. It means that H7 was magnified later on the Fukushima accident in South Korea [Total standardized furnishings (TSE): 0.416 (2010) → 0.592 (2012) → 0.694 (2016)]. In regard to motivations, a more comprehensive understanding of perceived trust is developing (H2 and H3); moreover, public knowledge of renewable-energy technologies is becoming important in forming public attitude toward and desire to prefer the technologies [H4 and H5; TSE: 0.007 (2010) → 0.011 (2012) → 0.107 (2016)].

This means that citizens are becoming familiar with renewable-energy technologies, and are beginning to understand the potential risks and benefits of such technologies (H7). Although the Fukushima nuclear accident, which occurred in a country shut to S Korea, was not directly associated with renewable-energy technologies, the results of the electric current study provide notable evidence that the incident has continually and consistently influenced the public's perceptions of detail free energy technologies.

Moreover, the results from 2016 likewise contribute to providing a better understanding of the sequential relationships of users' perceived trust-benefits and risks, attitude, and desire to adopt, and also evidence the significant roles perceived risk and trust in renewable-energy technologies play in regard to the diffusion, distribution, and success of the technologies in South Korea.

Implications, Limitations, and Future Studies

Consistent with the findings of prior studies, the current report validates the structural connections between desire to adopt, mental attitude, benefits (and risks), and trust in renewable-energy technologies in S Korea. Even so, some transitions were observed in 2016 that conflicted with the results from 2010 and 2012. Two variables, public attitude and perceived price, yet affect public want to prefer renewable-energy technologies; however, perceived risk is condign more important. Although public benefits is withal significant, its significance in determining public attitude has become more than moderate compared to its status in 2010 and 2012.

Although the Fukushima blow does non have direct connections with renewable-energy technologies, it has led to notable lessons for the public. After the accident, the potential risks of energy technologies, which are mainly dependent on perceived trust, are beginning to become one of the nearly significant determinants of public attitude. Moreover, the key determinant of public attitude has changed from perceived benefits to risks. This means that citizens are more than concerned about the potential harmfulness of energy technologies than their advantages. Although the effects of public knowledge are slight, the importance and significance of this knowledge are increasing.

Equally presented in the results, trust is still the key determinant of benefits and risks. This means that the Due south Korean government and its manufacture should be more than responsible and make its national energy plans sustainable and eco-friendly, focusing on the distribution of renewable-energy technologies and aiding public usage and consumption of the technologies.

In effect, the government and industry should focus on the revision of legislation, the enforcement of ordinances and regulations, the provision of subsidies and benefits, and the incubation of social trust in renewable-free energy technologies. Moreover, the regime should include the public as one of the key participants in the conclusion-making process concerning the revision, provision, and incubation of energy policies.

Although the current study presents some findings, there are several limitations. First, for several reasons, it is not easy to generalize the results of the current study. For example, because the survey described in this written report was conducted in Republic of korea, regional and cultural characteristics may take had an effect on the public'due south perceptions. Second, the current study applies a research model for public perceptions that was validated in prior research along with the motivations tested therein (Park and Ohm, 2014). Several studies accept indicated that other motivations tin be significantly related to the adoption of free energy technologies (Assefa and Frostell, 2007; Huijts et al., 2012). Consequently, future enquiry should address these limitations and extend the findings of the electric current written report.

Data Availability Statement

All datasets generated for this report are included in the commodity/supplementary textile, farther inquiries can be directed to the respective writer/southward.

Ethics Statement

The studies involving man participants were reviewed and canonical past the Section of Interaction Science, Sungkyunkwan University. The patients/participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Author Contributions

EP fully conducted and wrote the manuscript.

Funding

This research was likewise supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Korea Regime (NRF-2018S1A5A8027730 and NRF-2020R1C1C1004324).

Conflict of Involvement

The author declares that the inquiry was conducted in the absence of whatsoever commercial or financial relationships that could be construed every bit a potential conflict of interest.

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